Review by: Seufert, Sabine (2005-02-23)

The article analyses informal and non-formal learning since the terms became linked recently with increasing attention worldwide. Firstly, the author gives an overview of the history of the term “informal learning” starting with “informal education” promoted by UNESCO at the end of the 1940’s. In order to map the different meanings which are associated with “informal learning” the author introduces a general learning definition by explaining “learning is the process by which an activity originates or is changed through reaction to an encountered situation.” This definition emphasizes that learning (1) is a specific activity and (2) is bonded to a situation which might have an impact on this process. In analogy to the Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological system’s concept the author mainly distinguishes a micro level where the full continuum of learning contexts can be considered and the macro level where “lifelong learning” as a guiding principle is stated. The article gives a short overview of the macro level in a chronological order describing five phases.

The main part of the article focuses on the micro level assuming that the features on the micro level are of primary importance for personal development. The author distinguishes between:

• Formal learning: learning taking place within an organised and structured context like formal education, company training, intentional from the learner’s perspective, may lead to a formal recognition (diploma, certificate)
• Non-formal learning: learning embedded in planned activities that are not explicitly designed as learning but contain an important learning element, intentional from the learner’s point of view
• Informal learning: learning resulting from daily life activities, often related to experiential learning, often considered as accidental learning, may be intentional, but mostly non-intentional from the learner’s point of view

Furthermore he introduces the terms explicit and implicit learning with focus on the person and not the attributes of external conditions since the terms intentional and non-intentional are unclear. Furthermore, he discusses the concept of incidental learning which can be integrated between explicit and implicit learning but at a different level since both explicit and implicit learning could happen incidental. In the author’s opinion the elements of external conditions are main factors to distinguish “formality” from “non- or informality” which are mainly the degree of educational arrangement, certification and approved public regulations. He summarizes his results in an interesting concept combining types of learning (explicit, incidental, and implicit) with formality of external conditions:

• Formal learning: consists of all three external conditions, explicit learning is the dominant learning type, however, implicit and incidental learning takes place as well.
• Non-formal learning: consists of educational arrangement and certification, all learning types are equal.
• Informal learning: no educational arrangement is designed; implicit learning is the dominant learning types.

The paper analyses the concept of formal, non-formal and informal learning in a scientifically profound way. The discussed concept “combination of types of learning and formality of external conditions” clarifies the different aspects (individual level, external conditions) and provides a convincing starting point for a stable definition of such a complex phenomenon. The right questions for further research are addressed at the end: “Everybody learns under non- and informal external conditions within one’s lifespan – but why, where, how and what has still to be investigated.”